현행 국제법상 영유권 관련 증거문제를 규율하는 조약이나 관습법 규칙은 존재하지 않으며, 판결과 학설 등 법규칙의 증거(법규결정의 보조수단)로만 존재한다. 국제ㆍ중재재판소 등의 국제판결과 학설을 종합해 보면, 지도는 증거로서의 적합성ㆍ타당성(증거능력)과 그 신빙성ㆍ비중(증명력)에 따라 크게 인증지도ㆍ예시/참조지도와 단독지도 등 3가지 종류로 분류된다고 해석된다. 특히 국제사법재판소는 1949년 콜퓨 해협사건에서 처음으로 간접ㆍ정황증거의 증거능력을 인정함으로써, 1928년 팔마스섬 중재사건에서 후버 재판관이 공식 문서에 부속된 지도의 증거능력만을 인정한 古典的 입장에서 탈피하기 시작하였다. 이러한 변화하는 법규칙의 증거를 독도문제에 적용해 본다면, 1877년 일본에서 제작되어 정부 공식문서의 본문에 편입된 인증지도인 ‘기죽도약도’는 당시 일본 최고행정기관인 태정관이 조선의 독도 영유권을 인정한 직접ㆍ1차적 증거로 평가된다. 또 기죽도약도는 일본 島根(시마네)縣이 1905년 독도를 일본령으로 ‘편입’하기 전 독도가 한국령이라는 사실을 인식ㆍ인정했음을 입증ㆍ증명하는 최선의 증거이다. 또 이 지도는 일본이 독도에 대한 원시적 권원을 확립했다고 주장하는 17세기 중반부터 1877년까지 적어도 약 200년간 조선의 독도 영유권 주장을 묵인한 증거가 된다. 더욱이 정부 고위관리의 자국에 ‘불리한’ 성명ㆍ진술ㆍ사실인정에 특별한 증명력을 부여한 국제사법재판소의 판례(니카라과 사건과 망끼에ㆍ에끄레오 사건)에 비추어, 이 지도는 당시 일본이 조선의 독도 영유권을 인정한 사실을 증명하는 결정적 증거이다. 한편 1531년 조선시대에 간행된 八道總圖는 官撰지리지인 신증동국여지승람에 첨부된 예시지도로서 현재의 울릉도와 독도의 위치를 바꾸어 표시한 오류 내지 부정확성이 있다. 그러나 이는 당시의 항해술과 측량술에 비추어 불가피한, 용인할 만한 수준의 것으로서, 법률상 당시 조선의 독도 영유의사(팔마스섬 중재사건)를 입증하는 직접ㆍ2차적 증거로서의 증거능력과 증명력을 결정적으로 훼손하는 정도에 이르는 것은 아니다. 중요한 점은 이 지도가 조선의 독도 영유의사를 명백히 하고 있다는 점이다. 또 현재의 기준으로 평가할 경우 거의 모든 고지도는 ‘치명적 오류’를 내재하고 있다. 공인ㆍ비공인 단독지도는 모두 증거능력을 가질 수 있으나, 증거가치(증명력) 면에서 2차적 증거로 간주된다. 지도의 증거능력과 증명력은 공인ㆍ비공인 여부보다는 지도의 정확성, 제작주체의 공정ㆍ중립성(팔마스섬 중재사건)과 일관성 등 3가지 요소에 의하여 좌우된다. 따라서 공인ㆍ비공인 단독지도여부는 그 증거능력과 증명력 판단의 결정적 요소가 되지 않는다. 다만 공인지도는 일반적으로 지도 제작국가의 공식 의사표시로 간주되며 따라서 당사국을 구속한다는 점에서 증거능력 면에서 비공인 단독지도에 우선한다. 그러나 비공인 단독지도는 공인지도 부재 등으로 인해 일단 증거능력이 인정되는 경우 그 증명력 면에서는 공인 단독지도에 못지않은 가치를 인정받을 수 있다(부르키나 파소/말리 간 국경분쟁사건). 특히 자국에 ‘불리한’ 정보를 표시한 객관성ㆍ중립성을 가진 도쿠가와 막부공인단독지도인 총회도와 일본변계약도 역시 특별한 증명력을 인정받을 수 있다. 조선시대에 간행된 많은 지도들(여지도, 해좌전도, 대한여지도 및 대한 전도)은 대부분 공인 단독지도로서, 한국의 독도 영유권에 대한 2차적 증거로 판단된다. 일본해군성과 육군참모본부가 1930-40년대 간행한 각종 수로지 부속해도 역시 대부분 ‘국가의 명(지시)에 의하여 그리고 국가의 감독ㆍ관리하에’ 제작된 국가(기관)의 의사가 반영된 지도라는 점에서, 군사지도/해도도 간접ㆍ2차적 증거로서 평가될 수 있다(벨기에/네덜란드 국경분쟁사건).연합국이 점령지 일본의 통치목적으로 작성한 부속지도들은 간접(정황)ㆍ2차적 증거를 구성하나, 당사국의 의사를 정확하게 반영한 것으로 평가되기 어렵다는 점에서 그 증명력은 제한적이라고 본다. 다만 그 객관성과 중립성을 입증할 수 있는 경우에는 그 증명력을 과소평가할 수 없을 것이다.
In the celebrated Island of Palmas arbitration of 1928, Judge Max Huber, identifying the function of a map with an ‘indirect indication’ at best, decided that a map, except when annexed to a legal instrument, had not the value of such an instrument, involving recognition or abandonment of rights. As a natural corollary, a map per se could not override an attribution accorded by official records, documents or boundary treaties. Admissibility as evidence was effectively ruled out for independently produced maps, whether official or unofficial. This landmark award rendered in the otherwise murky area of international law had instantly set up Mr Huber as the skeptical starting point for international jurisprudence on map evidence. The decision had left almost no room for a map to be taken as conclusive, or for any indirect evidence to be accepted as admissible in international boundary or territorial adjudication. It was not until 1949 that the ICJ in the Corfu Channel case was compelled or disposed to recognize a chain of circumstantial evidence as admissible or to presume it to be as such. The Huber thesis was taken up by Prof. Hyde in 1933 to negative the admissibility of unofficial maps, while Dr. Sandifer‘s works from the 1930s to the 1970s were no less than further elaboration and variations on Huber's theme. Now, does Huber’s proposition still put up a valid pronouncement of international law of map evidence? Or is it no longer so? And if not, to what extent does it define contemporary international map jurisprudence and what legal significance and effect can be attributed to maps and charts in a boundary or territorial question? In the absence of binding treaties or customary law of general applicability governing the admission and appreciation of maps as direct/indirect and primary/ secondary evidence, resort may be had to general principles of law (supplementary source of international law) relating to evidence. One need also take stock of select judicial decisions, arbitral awards and academic teachings(la doctrine) on territorial/frontier disputes as subsidiary means for determining rules of law applicable to maps[Art. 38(1), 1945 ICJ Statute]. Taking our cue from Learned Huber, this paper has been able to pick up an increasingly crucial, and sometimes decisive, role of map evidence and to identify three classes of maps in contemporary international jurisprudence. Certified/authenticated maps refer to those annexed to, incorporated into and identified in official records, documents or boundary treaties to become an integral part thereof. Illustrative/reference maps are those attached to and mentioned in the official text, while official/unofficial independent maps are published without any association with such records or documents. Applying this classification to a dazzling array of Dokdo-related maps and charts, a recently released Japanese chart of Kijukdo-Yakdo[磯竹島略圖: Ullungdo (Dagelet) Chart], drawn in 1877 by the Office of the Japanese Prime Minister, may easily be picked up as the best evidence recognizing Korean title to Dokdo. This map may well be classified as a certified map, since it was incorporated into an official document and identified in its text to become an integral part thereof. As such, this official chart constitutes conclusive evidence on Dokdo sovereignty and evidences official Japanese recognition of and acquiescence in Korean title to Dokdo. Furthermore, the document text incorporating the chart reportedly carried a directive, addressed to the Japanese Minister of the Interior, that Ullungdo and Dokdo were outside Japanese territories. It is important to note in this context that oral or written statements of a high-ranking official are??of particular probative force when they acknowledge facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person who made them??(ICJ's 1953 Minquiers/Echrehos and 1986 Nicaragua cases). For such acknowledgement amounts to nothing less than an admission or statement of facts. As such, Korea may well count on this Japanese chart to play its trump card and outdo Japan's claim to Dokdo. Meanwhile, the official Korean map of Paldo-Chongdo(八道總圖: Geographical Map of the Entire Eight Provinces), printed in circa 1531 during the Chosun Dynasty and attached to the government-compiled Shinjung-Dongguk-Yojisungram(New Supplemented National Geography of Our Lands of Scenic Beauty), may be tipped as a reference map. This map was neither incorporated into nor expressly mentioned in the text as the instrument consulted. However, from the inter-temporal law perspective, it may be noted that it was common Korean practice of this period for the compilers of official historiography or geography not to mention in its text any maps attached. And it is self-evident that the map inserted was intended for illustrative purposes. This ancient Korean map is flawed for its identification of Ullungdo and Dokdo in the reverse location. Would this imprecise representation vitiate or even invalidate its admissibility and probative value? Not precisely, we suppose. Such misrepresentation would not, in light of the lack, at the time, of proper surveying skills and navigation technology required for accurate mapping, put a damper on its status as secondary evidence. For in the Palmas arbitration, likewise, although the large scale map produced was "not quite correct" in the representation of the size, shape and location of Palmas of Melangis, Judge Huber was content, by resorting to the most reliable detailed modern maps, to identify the island with Palmas. In any event, an ancient map was destined for fatal flaws in many respects by today's standards. The important point is that this Korean map proffers conclusive proof of animus occupandi of the Chosun government in relation to Dokdo. A procession of independent maps will make up direct, secondary evidence. Official and semi-official independent maps printed by the Chosun and Tokugawa governments from the 18th to the late 19th century are regarded as representing the official position of the respective issuing state and will thus precede unofficial ones in their admissibility. This class of maps will comprise the Complete Map(總繪圖) and the Japanese Frontier Chart(日本邊界略圖, 1809) from Japan. Korean maps such as Dongguk-Jido, Haejua-Jondo, Yojido, Daehan-Yojido (1898) and Daehan-Jondo(1899) may also fall under this category, but the provenance of some of their earlier versions was not open and obvious. A couple of privately produced independent maps, once it will have been accepted as admissible, may nevertheless enjoy as high a probative effect as officially issued independent maps(ICJ's 1986 Burkina Faso/Mali case). In terms of probative force, therefore, the distinction between official and unofficial maps may not count as much as is often misconceived. The accuracy of a map and the impartiality and cogency of the cartographer are the key to its evidentiary value as well as its admissibility. This group will consist of such Japanese maps as the Map of the Three Abutting States(三國接壤地圖: 1786), the Complete Map of Chosun(1910) and the Complete Map of Shimane Prefecture(1910). A succession of Japanese maritime charts and pilots issued from the 1880s until the 1940s for military or navigational purposes would constitute indirect, secondary evidence. Again, the two maps attached, respectively, to the 1946 Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers??Instruction (SCAPIN) No.677 and to the 1950 Agreement Respecting the Disposition of Former Japanese Territories are also of a circumstantial character. They were produced by third parties primarily for administrative purposes and not necessarily intended for representing the intention of the parties over the title to Dokdo. As reviewed, examined and analyzed above, international case law on map evidence has been in the lengthy but relentless process of not just evolutionary but revolutionary changes. These jurisprudential developments, brought about mainly by the ICJ, have come about often in quantum leaps and bounds, culminating in the 1949 Corfu Channel case and the 1986 decision in the Burkina Faso/Mali frontier dispute in particular. The classic but conservative agenda credited to Judge Huber may thus no longer represent, let alone define a categorical premise on cartographic evidence. Nevertheless, the Huber legacy still lives on and even looms larger in the Dokdo context, especially for his seminal statement that official and semi-official maps would be??of special interest in cases where they do not assert the sovereignty of the country of which the Government has caused them to be issued??. This enduring obiter dictum, attributed to the 1928 Island of Palmas arbitration and confirmed subsequently in a modified form in the ICJ's Minquiers/Echrehos and Nicaragua cases, is quite apposite to the 1877 official Japanese chart of Kijukdo-Yakdo which admitted Korean title to Dokdo.