수난과 단절의 러시아 역사 가운데 19세기 러시아는 과거 지배자와 피지배자 사이에 누적되어 온 깊은 골과 간격, 사회적 모순을 치유하고 해결하기 위해 각성한 지식인들을 중심으로 전 러시아가 몸부림친 세기이다. 바로 이 몸부림의 한가운데 자리잡고 있는 것이 1861년 알렉산드르 2세의 농노제 폐지 이다. 또한 이 외에도 그는 행정, 사법, 군사, 교육 및 출판 등의 분야에서 일련의 개혁들이 단행되었다. 그러나 농노제 폐지를 포함한 이들 개혁은 국가와 사회, 군주와 지주, 지주와 농민, 동시에 다양한 여러 사회-정치적 흐름들 간의 복잡한 타협의 산물로 근본적인 개혁에 이르지 못했으며, 도리어 과격 혁명분자들의 준동을 초래하였다. 결국 이와 같은 사태발전은 개혁의 주도자였던 황제를 비롯한 정부의 자유주의적 고위관료들을 다시 반동의 길로 돌아서게 하였고, 이는 1881년 알렉산드르 2세의 암살로 이어지면서 러시아는 또다시 극심한 반동의 시대로 접어들었다. 그리고 이 반동의 시대는 20세기 초 대혁명을 촉진시키는 결과를 초래하였다. 알렉산드르 2세는 스스로가 대개혁의 실시에 앞서 "농노제가 밑으로부터 폐지되는 것을 기다리기보다는, 위로부터 폐지하는 것이 더 좋을 것이다"라고 언명하였지만, 바로 이 순간부터 그는 이미 위로부터의 개혁인 자신의 개혁이 전제권을 위협하는 수준을 넘어서는 안된다는 선을 그어놓고 있었던 것이다.
The 19th century Russia witnessed not only the wide gap between the rulers and the ruled but also the struggles among intelligentsia to solve the chronic social problems of Russian Empire. The emancipation of serfs constitutes the core of reforms by Aleksandr II. A new historical trend in Russia influenced by European liberalism and nationalism served as a background for Aleksnadr II`s reforms. On top of it other specific social and political conditions necessitated the drastic changes. Among others, we might mention such factors as Aleksandr II`s awareness of social crisis, liberal tendency among high-ranking officials surrounding the emperor, reactionary measures by the preceding Nikolai I, active social movements among awakened intelligentsia, and Russia`s defeat in Crimean War. The emancipation of serfs in 1861 offered Russian peasants freedom. Opened a way for the introduction of capitalism, and led to the economic modernization. On the other hand, these great reforms resulted in a kind of uncertainty because of the complicated compromises made between the state and society, between the monarch and the landowners, and between the landowners and peasants. In fact landowners could still maintain their estates during the process of emancipation, while peasants who received only limited freedom due to the collective responsibility under peasant commune system(oбшина, мир) became economically more dependent on their owners. In this respect the great reforms in 1861 was not successful in solving the peasant problems. Rather their negative aspects facilitated the social turbulence, thus leading to the Revolution at the beginning of 20th century. A series of liberal measures during 1860s and 1870s, including municipal administrative, judicial, military, educational, and other social reforms, meant an important progress for individual freedom. And at the same time they laid a foundation for Russia`s future economic development. However, these measures also had limitations because of immature bourgeois class and political indifference among people. That was why the so-called shestideshatniki and revolutionary populists began to mobilize unsatisfied radical voices and even attempted at the emperor`s life. As we may expect, such situation dissuaded government`s aspiration toward reforms, and alerted liberal-minded top officials. In their turn the emperor and his officials changed their course toward reactionary inclination. This tension culminated in the assassination of Aleksandr II in 1881, thereby widely opening the era of reactionary movements. According to French political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville "the most dangerous moment for a corrupt government is the time when it starts to reform the established structure." Reforms of government in a way signify an official recognition of existing social evils and incite people`s expectations. Once reforms fail, expectations can quickly change into frustration, anger, and finally into the seeds of revolution. The reign of Aleksandr II namely coincides with such critical moment, since his reforms led to both ``the revolution of rising expectations`` and ``the revolution of frustrated expectations``. When he proclaimed that to abolish the serfdom from above is better than to wait until it is being dismantled from under. Aleksandr II has already made clear that reforms should not challenge his autocracy in any case.