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This paper is an investigation of the iconographic meaning of the Five Directional Gods carved in bas-relief on the three-storied stone pagoda at Paekjang-am, a hermitage attached to nearby Silsang-sa temple in Nam-won, North Cholla Province. Whereas the illustrations of the Five Directional Gods in the Sutra of Consecration(灌頂經) are widely recognized as a template for images of these figures at Sach’onwang-sa Temple(四天王寺) in Kyongju, the Five Directional Gods on the Paekjang-am pagoda are comprised of Indra and the Four Heavenly Guardians.
Stylistic analysis suggests the stone pagoda at Paekjang-am was erected in the late 9th century. It is presumed to be related to one of the prominent Chan Buddhist sects, the Silsangsan-school, which was vitalized by the monk Such’ol(秀澈), who succeeded its founder Hongch’ok(洪陟) in the late 9th century. Although Such’ol specialized in Chan Buddhism, he was very well acquainted with sutra and some aspects of Esoteric Buddhism as well. The diversity of his thoughts and beliefs explains why esoteric iconography appears on the pagodas of Chan temples.
The Indra image among the Five Directional Gods carved on the pagoda of Paekjang-am had been misidentified as an anonymous bodhisattva. But based on comparison with the Painting of Principle Deities for Worship of the Sutra of Benevolent Kings(仁王經五方諸尊圖) in Japan, It is now identified as Indra. This drawing is a later copy of Sutra of Benevolent Kings which was known to have been introduced to Japan from China by the Japanese Esoteric Buddhist monk Kukai(空海) in the early 9th century. In view of frequent exchanges between the Unified Silla and Japan, it is possible that the Unified Silla could have also been recipient of Esoteric iconography at this time.
The Four Heavenly Guardians carved on this pagoda are similar to those from Assorted Notes on Individual Divinities(別尊雜記), which also includes copies of old iconographic drawings from the Tang dynasty.
Indra and the Four Heavenly Guardians on the Paekjang-am pagoda, and Eight Guardians reliefs recently excavated around this pagoda, not only represent the guardianship of the inner contents of the stone buildings but also establish the vertical hierarchy of the Buddhist world. An even more noteworthy aspect is the refined buddhist concepts they embody. The Indra image on the Paekjang-am pagoda is the same as that of the Five Directional Gods in the Painting of Principle Deities for Worship of the Sutra of Benevolent Kings(仁王經五方諸尊圖), hence they could be closely related to each other in conception. The Five Directional Gods image originated from the Prajna-Paramita Sutra of Benevolent Kings’ Defense of a Country(仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經) and its annotation, the Dharani Ritual Procedure for the Prajna-Paramita Sutra of Benevolent Kings’ Defense of a Country(仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經陀羅尼念誦儀軌), translated and written by the renowned Chinese esoteric monk Bukong(不空) in the late 8th century of the Tang dynasty. This Sutra and its Dharani Ritual Procedure emphasize the spirit for defending nations and contain many elements of Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism based on the Vajra、sekhara Sutra. Indra is considered therein as the embodiment of Prajna-Paramita(般若波羅蜜多), or the completion of Wisdom which is one of the principal themes of Buddhism.
It is likely that Sutras such as Dharanis for Safeguarding the Nation, the Realm and the Chief of State(守護國界主陀羅尼經), which speaks of defending one’s country with the help of Indra, the Four Heavenly Guardians and Eight Guardians, could have also influenced the iconography of the Five Directional Gods. It is interesting that this Dharani Sutra is also classified as a Vajradhatu text.
Also suggestive of the close connection between the Paekjang-am pagoda and Vajradhatu Buddhism are the Four Directional Buddha images carved on the each side of the lower part of the third-roof stones. These images are iconographically identical to the Five Directional Buddha images of Vajradhatu Realm except for the central Buddha(Maha-Vairocana).
The Unified Silla had in fact assimilated Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism as well as Garbhadhatu Esoteric Buddhism at the end of the 8th century, at the latest. A Korean monk named Hyeil(惠日) studied under one of the most illustrious Chinese esoteric buddhist monks, Huiguo(惠果), and returned to the Unified Silla. He brought back with him numerous iconographies relevant to Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism with which he played an active part in the buddhist culture of the Unified Silla. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Hyeil was twenty-three years senior to Kukai under Huiguo’s school. The Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhist sculptures on the Paekjang-am pagoda were possibly produced upon these iconographic, doctrinal, ritual and historical bases.
Stylistic analysis suggests the stone pagoda at Paekjang-am was erected in the late 9th century. It is presumed to be related to one of the prominent Chan Buddhist sects, the Silsangsan-school, which was vitalized by the monk Such’ol(秀澈), who succeeded its founder Hongch’ok(洪陟) in the late 9th century. Although Such’ol specialized in Chan Buddhism, he was very well acquainted with sutra and some aspects of Esoteric Buddhism as well. The diversity of his thoughts and beliefs explains why esoteric iconography appears on the pagodas of Chan temples.
The Indra image among the Five Directional Gods carved on the pagoda of Paekjang-am had been misidentified as an anonymous bodhisattva. But based on comparison with the Painting of Principle Deities for Worship of the Sutra of Benevolent Kings(仁王經五方諸尊圖) in Japan, It is now identified as Indra. This drawing is a later copy of Sutra of Benevolent Kings which was known to have been introduced to Japan from China by the Japanese Esoteric Buddhist monk Kukai(空海) in the early 9th century. In view of frequent exchanges between the Unified Silla and Japan, it is possible that the Unified Silla could have also been recipient of Esoteric iconography at this time.
The Four Heavenly Guardians carved on this pagoda are similar to those from Assorted Notes on Individual Divinities(別尊雜記), which also includes copies of old iconographic drawings from the Tang dynasty.
Indra and the Four Heavenly Guardians on the Paekjang-am pagoda, and Eight Guardians reliefs recently excavated around this pagoda, not only represent the guardianship of the inner contents of the stone buildings but also establish the vertical hierarchy of the Buddhist world. An even more noteworthy aspect is the refined buddhist concepts they embody. The Indra image on the Paekjang-am pagoda is the same as that of the Five Directional Gods in the Painting of Principle Deities for Worship of the Sutra of Benevolent Kings(仁王經五方諸尊圖), hence they could be closely related to each other in conception. The Five Directional Gods image originated from the Prajna-Paramita Sutra of Benevolent Kings’ Defense of a Country(仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經) and its annotation, the Dharani Ritual Procedure for the Prajna-Paramita Sutra of Benevolent Kings’ Defense of a Country(仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經陀羅尼念誦儀軌), translated and written by the renowned Chinese esoteric monk Bukong(不空) in the late 8th century of the Tang dynasty. This Sutra and its Dharani Ritual Procedure emphasize the spirit for defending nations and contain many elements of Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism based on the Vajra、sekhara Sutra. Indra is considered therein as the embodiment of Prajna-Paramita(般若波羅蜜多), or the completion of Wisdom which is one of the principal themes of Buddhism.
It is likely that Sutras such as Dharanis for Safeguarding the Nation, the Realm and the Chief of State(守護國界主陀羅尼經), which speaks of defending one’s country with the help of Indra, the Four Heavenly Guardians and Eight Guardians, could have also influenced the iconography of the Five Directional Gods. It is interesting that this Dharani Sutra is also classified as a Vajradhatu text.
Also suggestive of the close connection between the Paekjang-am pagoda and Vajradhatu Buddhism are the Four Directional Buddha images carved on the each side of the lower part of the third-roof stones. These images are iconographically identical to the Five Directional Buddha images of Vajradhatu Realm except for the central Buddha(Maha-Vairocana).
The Unified Silla had in fact assimilated Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism as well as Garbhadhatu Esoteric Buddhism at the end of the 8th century, at the latest. A Korean monk named Hyeil(惠日) studied under one of the most illustrious Chinese esoteric buddhist monks, Huiguo(惠果), and returned to the Unified Silla. He brought back with him numerous iconographies relevant to Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhism with which he played an active part in the buddhist culture of the Unified Silla. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Hyeil was twenty-three years senior to Kukai under Huiguo’s school. The Vajradhatu Esoteric Buddhist sculptures on the Paekjang-am pagoda were possibly produced upon these iconographic, doctrinal, ritual and historical bases.
목차
Ⅰ. 머리말
Ⅱ. 석탑 건립의 신앙적 배경
Ⅲ. 석탑의 구조와 오방신상 도상
Ⅳ. 오방신상 도상의 의미와 해석
Ⅴ. 맺음말
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